Does Inequality in School System Funding Contribute to the Cycle of Poverty

In Savage Inequalities, Jonathan Kozol depicts the states of a few of America's government funded schools. Somewhere in the range of 1988 and 1990, Kozol visited schools in around 30 neighborhoods and found that there was a wide divergence in the conditions between the schools in the least fortunate downtown networks and schools in the wealthier rural networks. By what method can there be such gigantic contrasts inside the government funded educational system of a nation which professes to give equivalent chance to all?It gets evident to Kozol that numerous poor youngsters start their young lives with training that is far second rate compared to that of the kids who experience childhood in wealthier networks. They are not given an equivalent open door from the beginning. He composes, â€Å"Denial of ‘the methods for rivalry' is maybe the absolute most steady result of the instruction offered to poor youngsters in the schools of our huge urban areas . . . † (p. 83). Albei t all youngsters are required to go to class until age 16, there are significant contrasts in schools and they have all the earmarks of being drawn along lines of race and social class.Kozol analyzes how the inconsistent financing of schools identifies with social class divisions, institutional and natural prejudice, confinement and distance of understudies and staff inside poor schools, the physical rot of structures, and the wellbeing states of understudies. These add to a mental chaos of the youngsters who perceive that the decision class sees them as superfluous and not worth putting away its cash or assets. Kozol's focal point of this book is to inspect urban school locale, which are seriously isolated by race and class.They are overwhelmingly nonwhite and exceptionally poor, which stands out pointedly from the affluent overwhelmingly white rural schools directly close to them (p. 74). He constrains his choices to poor downtown schools as opposed to incorporate instances of eve ry single poor school since he feels that they best show racial isolation and social class divisions. He takes note of that in any event, when schools have a â€Å"diverse† understudy populace, isolation happens inside the school through a custom curriculum programs or professional tracking.Although Kozol doesn't straightforwardly address it, the focal point of the issues that influence these schools is an industrialist framework that requires the generation of the divisions of work (Bowles). Schools give the preparation to meet this necessity through the following of understudies into the jobs that they will satisfy in our financial framework. The decision class endeavors to ensure that there are a suitable number of individuals to fit these employments. Entrepreneurs (I. e. entrepreneurs) need a respectful workforce, yet an overflow of laborers at each level so they can pay the least pay conceivable (Spring, p. 24). They will search out and energize programs that train indi viduals for such employments. Who ought to be appointed every job? Kozol brings up that rich white individuals need to ensure their kids land the â€Å"good† positions and live in the â€Å"good† (less contaminated) regions. They profit by the divisions of work and will utilize their impact to keep up government strategies that guarantee their positions.When Kozol talked about financing imbalances among school regions with a gathering of prosperous understudies in Rye, New York, one understudy displayed these convictions when she said she had no motivation to think about fixing the issues of school subsidizing on the grounds that she neglected to perceive how it could profit her (p. 126). She for sure perceived how the class divisions were for her potential benefit. For what reason would she need to change that? The strategies that the decision class makes to keep up their place on the social class stepping stool intrinsically lead to the continuation of the pattern of destitution, social class divisions, and ecological and institutional racism.Kozol gives instances of this, which extend from the area of nonwhite, needy individuals on and close to harmful waste locales (p. 8-12), to accusing issues of the downtown for the individuals inside that framework (they can't administer themselves, their youngsters do not merit the cash it takes to teach them) (p. 9, 26, 75-76, 192-193), to the subsidizing recipe that distributes assets to government funded schools (54-56, 202, and all through). It is this inconsistent subsidizing of state funded schools that is Kozol's principle accentuation in Savage Inequalities.Funding dependent on property assessments and property estimations victimizes lower social classes, and this inconsistent financing prompts second rate schools and makes a wide dissimilarity between schools in the least fortunate and wealthiest networks. Disengagement of understudies, staff, and the network is an immediate aftereffect of the disparities in subsidizing. Individuals who have poor tutoring are channeled into employments which are inadequately paid thus the individuals have less information, however have less cash and impact with which to change the framework (p. 7). Since they don't have the foggiest idea how, nor have the apparatuses important to break the pattern of neediness, they keep on imitating the class divisions and tutoring that bolsters it. This thus permits their kids to be constantly followed and taken care of into the lower talented employments and tutoring, which is an important segment of the entrepreneur framework. Kozol distinctively represents the despicable states of the most unfortunate schools. Interestingly, he gives brilliant portrayals of the wealthiest rural schools that neighbor them.He successfully shows the bigot conditions and social class separation that lead to the varieties inside the state funded educational system just as talks about the subsidizing recipe for America's g overnment funded schools. His composing is overstated, I am certain, so as to come to his meaningful conclusion. He had a wealth of data and must be specific (as anybody would) and while picking what to incorporate, he utilized the outrageous guides to make his focuses understood. He might not have included schools since they didn't represent his point, which is that there is a gigantic error in the nature of state funded schools relying upon where one lives.Yet it despite everything appears that he could have included more. What Kozol ought to have remembered was more data for his â€Å"research† techniques. Maybe this could be included as a reference section. What number of schools did he visit on the whole? What number of were grade schools, center schools, and secondary schools? How might he arrange the schools he did visit? What number of the complete would he say were affluent, terrible, or a changing degree in the middle? Kozol gives depictions of the most exceedingly terrible of the most exceedingly terrible, however his exploration just stretches out to a set number of urban schools.He inquires as to whether what he sees is atypical of downtown schools (p. 36). Has he visited enough schools to discover that? The facts confirm that there are those schools out there and they ought not be that way, yet do they speak to most of urban schools the nation over? He is specific in picking and portraying the most exceedingly awful of the schools situated in the downtown, yet he forgets about any notice of the overall states of different schools in the city. He likewise neglects to incorporate any instances of states of poor white rural and provincial schools and schools not at the working class level.Perhaps Kozol could likewise remember more for his perspectives concerning what the â€Å"minimal† necessities for a decent school ought to be. What should every single state funded school have? He says that there ought to be progressively poor school s that look like the better schools. Are the affluent rural schools instances of the base that â€Å"public schooling† should offer? Or on the other hand will they have fairly less (not really California) while more unfortunate schools get significantly more? Are there least instructive encounters that all understudies could expect in any open school?If guardians needed more than was given by the government funded schools, they could request more (for all) or they could give mentoring or a private schooling for their kids. Kozol proposes leveled subsidizing as an answer for the absence of value in urban schools. Financing alone won't explain the schools. There should be changes in the more noteworthy society that would need to happen all the while for genuine upgrades to happen. Plus, equivalent financing doesn't mean equivalent schools. Would strategy creators truly need equivalent funding?If legislators truly esteemed state funded training and put stock in doing what might give equivalent subsidizing to ALL, a lot of cash would â€Å"become accessible. †Ã¢ â Perhaps my most noteworthy issues with Savage Inequalities are that Kozol doesn't profoundly analyze why things got the manner in which they have as they identify with the motivations behind tutoring as portrayed by Joel Spring (p. 18-26), and Kozol is all discussion, no activity. While he was visiting these schools, did he endeavor to arrange the schools, instructors, guardians, and understudies? He watched the schools and had the option to feature the disparities present, however did he do anything?He had a perfect chance to start some arranging of those included, yet the book doesn't recommend that he did significantly more than visit the schools and report back what he saw, heard, and felt. Since just piece of the issue, yet a huge part, is the manner by which the schools are supported, one would need to look past the training framework to discover an answer which would truly redres s the issues Kozol portrays. Schools can't genuinely be improved without â€Å"reforming† the cultural conditions that encompass the schools.The schools are how they are for a purposeâ€to repeat the social divisions of work (Bowles) and to keep up the industrialist economy of our nation. While talking about how to take care of issues of inconsistent subsidizing, Jezebel, an eleventh grade understudy at Woodrow Wilson School in Camden, New Jersey tends to isolation and says that regardless of whether financing were the equivalent, schools won't be equivalent. An exceptionally keen youngster, she perceives how much the decision class will forestall a reasonable instruction framework and integration from creating as she sensibly proposes that â€Å"it would take a war to b

Disseratation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 8250 words

Disseratation - Essay Example This end is arrived at dependent on the perception of kids and their educators in an elementary school from levels 1-6 just as the worries of the SENCO.It was discovered that there were wide holes in the hypothesis and practice of SEN instructors as evident from the inconsistencies from their meetings and what the creator got an opportunity to watch later on.Other issues that emerge in the conversation is the troublesome assignment looked by the grade incredibly to terms with the compelling administration of the exceptional instructive needs battling from subsidizing issues and parental desires. The paper suggests that either there ought to be an arrival to the some time ago isolated learning strategies or home instructing or there ought to be better activities to advance the improvement of adaptable preparing modules which are intended to be down to earth and pertinent for elementary schools. Such preparing offices would require the coordinated effort between the essential educators , LEA staff and nearby preparing suppliers. The previous two decades have been critical to the adjustment in the manners by which the neighborhood Education Authorities and schools have been required to react to understudies with unique instructive needs (SEN). ... Such preparing offices would require the joint effort between the essential instructors , LEA staff and neighborhood preparing suppliers. presentation The previous two decades have been crucial to the adjustment in the manners by which the neighborhood Education Authorities and schools have been required to react to understudies with exceptional instructive needs (SEN). This started when the 1981 Education Act was passed and there was a race to change the evaluation and referral frameworks of the SEN pupils.The switch accelerated with the later Education Act 1988 with its extreme ramifications for the training and arrangement of SEN learning.This enactment joined with the presentation of the National Curriculum,and the 1992 White Paper have all carried an enormous test to the executives of the SEN initiatives.This has likewise to some degree been influenced by the modified in administration financing game plan which have additionally affected educator funding.The changing SEN activity in the UK depended on the Warnock report the suggestions of which were planned for upsetting the noteworthy act of managing youngsters with handicaps or learning challenges in an isolated manner. Anyway how effective this activity to has been in letting learning handicaps not disrupt everything for youngsters to be instructed in their local school, imparting figuring out how to their companion is bantered in this dissertation.This is especially evident from the subsidizing issues and the challenges looked by the instructors in managing learning disabilities.In this respect my exposition offers a new point of view which really favors that when isolated these kids may be treated by authority teachers.Admittedly it is out of line to isolate SEN understudies from

Word of the Week! Anthropomorphic Richmond Writing

Word of the Week! Anthropomorphic Richmond Writing Todays word comes to us courtesy of  Cheryl Huff, on the faculty of our School of Professional and Continuing Studies. The word has cousins I use at times in my teaching:  Anthropocentric for a human-focused view of the word,  Anthropocene for the new epoch of Climate Change and other human-caused ecological changes, many but not all of them tragic for us and other species. The root of all of them, anthropo- comes from Greek and Latin, meaning something relating to humans. Thus anthropomorphic is something to which we ascribe human characteristics.   It can also be something that has a human form, as do some robots. We make animals anthropomorphic constantly; consider the 2005 documentary film March of the Penguins, Disneys animals, Geicos talking Gecko, or Carfaxs Fox. Foxes are wise, right? Deer, innocent and loving? Perhaps we do this partly out of guilt over what we are doing to them and their natural habitats in the Anthropocene? Or perhaps we simply like making humans the measure of all things? If we are indeed the measure of all things, as went the old cliche coined by Protagoras of Abdera (the phrase is now fresh again, from disuse in our times of shallow language, where Super is our most popular, and most mindless, adjective), this weeks word is the one for our all about us time. Please nominate a word or metaphor useful in academic writing by e-mailing me (jessid -at- richmond -dot- edu) or leaving a comment below. See all of our Metaphors of the Month  here  and Words of the Week  here. Image credit:  Vitruvian Man by Leonardo da Vinci, courtesy of Wikipedia.

Helpful Books for ESL Students in Great Britian

Substance Abuse And Substance Use Disorder - 998 Words

According to the Diagnostic Statistic Manual 5 (DSM-5) substance use disorder is when the individual has a dependency on alcohol or drug, followed by penetrating craving and antisocial behavior to acquire the substance. The terms substance abuse and substance dependence refer to substance use disorder, which has been separated into three classifications as follows 1. Moderate Drinking the Dietary Guideline says 1 drink a day by women and 2 drinks for men. 2. Binge Drinking 5 or more alcoholic drink during the same occasion on 1 day within the past month. However the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism states the pattern of drinking by which your blood alcohol concentration is above 0.07g/dl, 4 drinks for women, and 5 for men over a 180 minute period. 3. Heavy Drinking 5 or more drinks daily in the past month (SAMHSA, 2014) To be diagnose with substance use disorder the person will have the following symptoms that has occurred during a 1 year period. The inability to manage key obligations at home not paying mortgages and bills, work not showing up or missing important deadline or school not going. Driving while under the influence which could cause physical harm and hazard to yourself and others, social and personal issues because of substance use, legal problems because of substance use disorder. The identifying difference in the DSM-5 criteria for substance use disorder would be the 2-3 out of the 11 symptoms is Mild, 4-5 is classified as moderate, andShow MoreRelatedSubstance Use Disorder And Substance Abuse997 Words   |  4 PagesSubstance use disorder is defined as being a pattern of maladaptive behaviors and reactions brought about by repeated use of a substance, sometimes also including tolerance for the substance and withdrawal reactions. (pg. 294). The individual I will be talking about for the project is someone that came to crave a particular substance and rely on it every day. Their choice to devote so much of their time to their substance caused issues between their family and friends. Both family and friends startedRead MoreThe Use Of Alcohol And Substance Abuse Disorder917 Words   |  4 PagesMs. A is a 24-year-old, Caucasian female. She was referred for a psychological evaluation by her therapist for her excessive use of Alcohol and Substance Abuse Disorde r. Additionally, Ms. A stated she has been experiencing a loss of interest, low self-esteem and feeling anxious. She complains that her struggle with substance abuse has negatively impacted her interpersonal relationships, behavioral, emotional as well as her health. The purpose of the current evaluation is to (1) evaluate her levelRead MoreAttention Deficit / Hyperactive Disorder ( Adhd )1166 Words   |  5 PagesAttention-deficit/hyperactive disorder (ADHD) has become one of the most commonly diagnosed mental health disorders in children and adolescent. â€Å"ADHD is defined as a chronic condition marked by persistent inattention, hyperactivity, and sometimes impulsivity.† (Disney, 1999) There is concern about the possible connection between ADHD to substance use and abuse, during childhood and adolescence, since it is such an important developmental stage in life. â€Å"Substance abuse disorder is defined as a physicalRead More Eating Disorders And Substance Abuse Essay1 636 Words   |  7 PagesEating Disorders And Substance Abuse Common Eating Disorders: The two most common eating disorders are bulimia nervosa and anorexia nervosa. Both disorders, primarily affect young women, therefore the majority of the research on eating disorders has been done with women subjects. The onset of bulimia is between adolescence and early adulthood while the onset of anorexia is between early and late adolescence. Not only is the onset different but the disorders are unique. Bulimia nervosa isRead MoreEating Disorders And Anorexia Nervosa951 Words   |  4 PagesEating disorders are a sickness that can come from psychological issues and it can disrupt the everyday diet. â€Å"A person with an eating disorder may have started out just eating smaller or larger amounts of food, but at some point, the urge to eat less or more spiraled out of control.† The common eating disorders are anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa. Anorexia nervosa is when someone see’s themselves as an overweight person, so they watch what they eat since, they have a fear of becoming overweightRead MoreThe Abuse Of Drugs And Alcohol1365 Words   |  6 PagesThe abuse of drugs and alcohol has been a known issue over past decades. The media paints the picture that alcohol and drug use is fun and the only way to have a good time. While alcohol in moderation is fine, many people find themselves going over board and abusing it. Elicit drugs like cocaine and heroin are highly addictive and have several adverse effects. People find themselves depressed and anxious so they ultimately try to use these drugs to mask the pain instead of getting help for theirRead MoreThe Prevalence of Co-Occurring Disorders Essay893 Words   |  4 PagesPREVALENCE OF CO-OCCURRING DISORDERS The Prevalence of Co-Occurring Disorders Launita D. Joseph Grand Canyon University August 15, 2012 The Prevalence of Co-Occurring Disorders When a counselor has a new client they are working with, the client has to be assessed. When being assessed the counselor has to determine what issues the client may have. Through being assessed, the counselor may come to realize the client has more than one issue which is called co-occurring disorders. At this point theRead MoreCorrelation Between Parietal And Adolescent Drug Abuse1578 Words   |  7 PagesSarah Tischbein Gd3423 Psych Extra Credit Ye In Oh Correlation Between Parietal and Adolescent Drug Abuse In today s society substance abuse is a common problem throughout the United States of America. The objective of the experiment is to show the correlation between substance use behaviors of parents and their children’s substance use initiation and other risky behaviors. The experiment is focused on the role of mothers and fathers as a separate study. The surveys that take place through a seriesRead MoreAlcohol And Drug Use Among College Students960 Words   |  4 Pagesand drug use among college students is viewed as innoxious fun which students take part in to get away from the stress of being a student. What begins as innocent fun can quickly lead to a self-destructive path. While often referred to as substance abuse, The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-5 redefined it as; Substance Use Disorders and explains it to be as a cluster of cognitive, behavioral and physiological symptoms which indicate that an individual continues to use a substanceRead More Relationship Between Mental Health And Addiction1470 Words   |  6 PagesIf you or someone you love is seeking treatment for a substance abuse related disorder in addition to a psychiatric disorder, you will come across two terms in your research: co-occurring disorders and dual diagnosis. Right off you may be more concerned about simply getting help for your addiction. Maybe it has caused you to lose your job and your family is in tatters. It s important to note that when substance abuse and mental illness co-occur specialized treatment is needed. First, however, you

Victimiology and Alternatives to the Traditional Criminal Justice System Free Essays

Restorative justice is a procedure whereby all interested parties in a particular offence collectively gather to determine together how to deal with the consequence of the offense and its significance for the future. From the victim’s standpoint, restorative justice has been shown as a rule to have achieved better conflict resolution than the existing system of criminal justice. The concept enables the victims to have a voice in the justice process, by offering them an opportunity to ask queries and seek out answers, affording them a part in the sentencing resolution and providing them with opportunities for closure and healing. We will write a custom essay sample on Victimiology and Alternatives to the Traditional Criminal Justice System or any similar topic only for you Order Now Victimiology and Alternatives to the Traditional Criminal Justice System The term â€Å"restorative justice† has come into view in varied forms, with diverse names, and in several countries; it has sprung from sites of academia, activism, and justice system agencies. The idea may refer to an alternative procedure for resolving controversies, to alternative options of interdiction, or to a uniquely different, â€Å"new† approach of criminal justice organized around theories of restoration to offenders, victims, and the communities in which the parties live. The term may also confer to diversion from recognized court process, to actions taken in parallel with court judgments, and to meetings between victims and` offenders at any phase of the criminal process. Although restorative justice is a large concept with compound referents, there is a comprehensive sense of what it stands for. It calls attention to the repair of damages and of shattered social bonds resulting from crime; and concentrates on the relationships between crime offenders, victims, and society. Restorative justice is a procedure whereby all interested parties in a particular offence collectively gather to determine together how to deal with the consequence of the offense and its significance for the future. For victims, it enables them to have a voice in the justice process, by offering them an opportunity to ask queries and seek out answers, affording them a part in the sentencing resolution, and providing them with opportunities for closure and healing. It is not merely a way of correcting the criminal justice system; it is a way of changing society’s practice of politics, conduct in the workplace, family lives, and entire legal structure. The restorative justice’s vision is of a holistic change in the manner people carry out justice with the rest of the world. Whether restorative justice can eventually be of assistance to the victims without impairing the community or justice remains to be seen. But it is becoming apparent that the concept does without a doubt helps most victims. Increasing observed benefits and advantages of restorative justice are outweighing the insignificant harms caused by it. The said findings appeared from a research study conducted in Australia over the period of 1995 to 2000; known as the Reintegrative Shaming Experiments (Ronken and Lincoln, n. d. , p. 3). The assessments integrated observations of the court and conferences proceedings, review of official data, and consultation with the victims after their cases were ordered. The assessment revealed: Firstly, the manners of intervention in restorative justice are organized affords much greater prospect for victims to know about the development of their cases than available when cases are processed all the way through the courts. In practice, victims are unusually told nothing concerning their case when they are not obliged to be witnesses. This inadequacy of communication was the particular greatest reason for victims’ dissatisfaction whose cases went to court. Secondly, a restorative justice encounter expectedly necessitates a high degree of participation by both offenders and victims. Victims stresses that personal delivery of justice is one of the advantages that they admire in restorative justice process that are not presented in the court. Thirdly, if emotional restitution is what victims’ value most for their mending, then restorative justice provides sufficient opportunity for the said restitution to take place. Fourthly, victims are more likely to acquire restitution through restorative justice as compared through the courts. Victims often obtained some other form of material reparation, such as service by the offender for the affected people or for the community. Lastly, 90 percent of victims who experienced restorative justice answered that they have been treated respectfully and justly in the resolution of their cases as they believed the meeting had taken account of what they alleged in deciding what should be done (Strang and Sherman, 2003, p. 35). Peacemaking Strategies Peacemaking strategies are holistic approach to crime and conflict and are used for centuries now in several countries. Peacemaking strategies deal with the fundamental causes of conflicts and violence. The approach considers the needs of offenders, victims, communities and families within a re-integrative framework. Peacemaking has a prospective to: assist adults and youth who come into dispute with the law; guarantee the development of responsible and healthy youth; support and recognize violence-free relationships; and increase the competence of communities to deal with social justice and criminal issues (Paiement, 2006, p. 5). Feedback from those who experienced peacemaking process noted the educational nature of the strategy; that they were able to take part openly and usually remarked on an approval for the peace talking; the process is competent in dealing with the issues of the parties directly and helping the offenders be aware of the outcomes of their actions; and the parties of the process were often very emotional and the victim felt respected and honoured (Paiement, 2006, p. 19). Shaming In the United States, most community registration and notification laws were enacted in the early 1990’s instantaneously after the occurrence of several high profile cases on violent sexual acts. Currently, state-controlled or public domain notification comes in two fundamental forms. The first is the registration that brings about the reporting of the criminals to justice bureaus in order for the latter to keep an eye on criminals’ movements. The second form is termed â€Å"community notification. † It comes in a range of forms such as internet postings, news releases, community conferences and targeting specific local areas, organizations or groups to give advice to the population concerning discharged sex offenders. However, shaming through notification laws will not automatically provide justice to the victims or shield the community from sex offenders. There are several well acknowledged explanations for such a conclusion. The explanation includes: that the shaming approach may promote displacement; offer a false sense of protection; incorrect forms of insulting; are based on high-levels of recidivism; lead to more costly and weighty justice processes; and may aggravate vigilante attacks (Ronken and Lincoln, n. d. , p. 9). In the United States it is estimated that sex offenders’ population are already 250,000, with 60 percent released in the community. It is clear that every individual cannot be advised in relation to all possible offenders prowling in their community. The aforementioned facts suggest the inefficiency of notification laws as a useful alternative to the traditional justice system. Further, notification conveys a frustrating message to the victims as well as the community that the state is capable to notify them about offenders within their midst but can present no means to deal with the dilemma. On the other hand John Braithwaite’s â€Å"reintegrative shaming† theory aims to eliminate the shaming nature of long-established criminal justice process that communities and families employ in reparation for the damages done to them. The concept is accomplished through a phrase of retrial for the offender’s act and a process of reintegrating the lawbreaker back into their society through acts of acceptance and forgiveness. Thus, if notification laws are steadily influenced in the principles of restorative justice, including reintegration and shaming, then there may be a decline in the level of re-offending and a greater sense of justice and fairness to the victims. How to cite Victimiology and Alternatives to the Traditional Criminal Justice System, Papers

Serological testing free essay sample

Using Direct Fluorescent Antibody Technique to Test for Chlamydia 1. Describe the importance of the washing steps in the direct antibody fluorescence test. It’s very important for the washing steps in the direct antibody fluorescence test to decrease the no-specific binding. 2. Explain where the epitope (antigenic determinant) is located. The epitopes are located in the antigens for the antibodies binding. 3. Describe how a positive result is detected in this serological test. The elementary bodies of the Chlamydia trachomatis stains green inside the red host cell, and the presence of more elementary bodies in a field of view compared to the positive control is considered a positive result. 4. How would the results be affected if a negative control gave a positive result? If a negative control gave a positive result, the positive results would be underestimated. A C T I V I T Y 2 Comparing Samples with Ouchterlony Double Diffusion 1. Describe how you were able to determine what antigen is in the unknown well. We will write a custom essay sample on Serological testing or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The results between well 2 5 were the same results as. We know that human serum albumin was placed in 4, so it should be the same in 5 to achieve the same result. 2. Why does the precipitin line form? The precipitin line occurs when the antigen and antibody are in optimal proportions and cross-linking occurs forming an insoluble precipitate. 3. Did you think human serum albumin and bovine serum albumin would have epitopes in common? How well did the results compare with your prediction? I think they have epitopes in common for the results showed they have partial identity. Same as my prediction.

Nelson Mandela - A Biography

Nelson Mandela - A Biography Nelson Mandela was elected the first black president of South Africa in 1994, following the first multiracial election in South Africas history. Mandela was imprisoned from 1962 to 1990 for his role in fighting apartheid policies established by the ruling white minority. Revered by his people as a national symbol of the struggle for equality, Mandela is considered one of the 20th centurys most influential political figures. He and South African Prime Minister F.W. de Klerk were jointly awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1993 for their role in dismantling the apartheid system. Dates: July 18, 1918- December 5, 2013 Also Known As: Rolihlahla Mandela, Madiba, Tata Famous quote:   I learned that courage was not the absence of fear, but the triumph over it. Childhood Nelson Rilihlahla Mandela was born in the village of Mveso, Transkei, South Africa on July 18, 1918 to Gadla Henry Mphakanyiswa and Noqaphi Nosekeni, the third of Gadlas four wives. In Mandelas native language, Xhosa, Rolihlahla meant troublemaker. The surname Mandela came from one of his grandfathers. Mandelas father was a chief of the Thembu tribe in the Mvezo region, but served under the authority of the ruling British government. As a descendant of royalty, Mandela was expected to serve in his fathers role when he came of age. But when Mandela was only an infant, his father rebelled against the British government by refusing a mandatory appearance before the British magistrate. For this, he was stripped of his chieftaincy and his wealth, and forced to leave his home. Mandela and his three sisters moved with their mother back to her home village of Qunu. There, the family lived in more modest circumstances. The family lived in mud huts and survived on the crops they grew and the cattle and sheep they raised. Mandela, along with the other village boys, worked herding sheep and cattle. He later recalled this as one of the happiest periods in his life. Many evenings, villagers sat around the fire, telling the children stories passed down through generations, of what life had been like before the white man had arrived. From the mid-17th century, Europeans (first the Dutch and later the British) had arrived on South African soil and gradually taken control from the native South African tribes. The discovery of diamonds and gold in South Africa in the 19th century had only tightened the grip that Europeans had on the nation. By 1900, most of South Africa was under the control of Europeans. In 1910, the British colonies merged with the Boer (Dutch) republics to form the Union of South Africa, a part of the British Empire. Stripped of their homelands, many Africans were forced to work for white employers at low-paying jobs. Young Nelson Mandela, living in his small village, did not yet feel the impact of centuries of domination by the white minority. Mandelas Education Although themselves uneducated, Mandelas parents wanted their son to go to school. At the age of seven, Mandela was enrolled in the local mission school. On the first day of class, each child was given an English first name; Rolihlahla was given the name Nelson. When he was nine years old, Mandelas father died. According to his fathers last wishes, Mandela was sent to live in the Thembu capital, Mqhekezeweni, where he could continue his education under the guidance of another tribal chief, Jongintaba Dalindyebo. Upon first seeing the chiefs estate, Mandela marveled at his large home and beautiful gardens. In Mqhekezeweni, Mandela attended another mission school and became a devout Methodist during his years with the Dalindyebo family. Mandela also attended tribal meetings with the chief, who taught him how a leader should conduct himself. When Mandela was 16, he was sent to a boarding school in a town several hundred miles away. Upon his graduation in 1937 at the age of 19, Mandela enrolled in Healdtown, a Methodist college. An accomplished student, Mandela also became active in boxing, soccer, and long-distance running. In 1939, after earning his certificate, Mandela began his studies for a Bachelor of Arts at the prestigious Fort Hare College, with a plan to ultimately attend law school. But Mandela did not complete his studies at Fort Hare; instead, he was expelled after participating in a student protest. He returned to the home of Chief Dalindyebo, where he was met with anger and disappointment. Just weeks after his return home, Mandela received stunning news from the chief. Dalindyebo had arranged for both his son, Justice, and Nelson Mandela to marry women of his choosing. Neither young man would consent to an arranged marriage, so the two decided to flee to Johannesburg, the South African capital. Desperate for money to finance their trip, Mandela and Justice stole two of the chiefs oxen and sold them for train fare. Move to Johannesburg Arriving in Johannesburg in 1940, Mandela found the bustling city an exciting place. Soon, however, he was awakened to the injustice of the black mans life in South Africa. Prior to moving to the capital, Mandela had lived mainly among other blacks. But in Johannesburg, he saw the disparity between the races. Black residents lived in slum-like townships that had no electricity or running water; while whites lived grandly off the wealth of the gold mines. Mandela moved in with a cousin and quickly found a job as a security guard. He was soon fired when his employers learned about his theft of the oxen and his escape from his benefactor. Mandelas luck changed when he was introduced to Lazar Sidelsky, a liberal-minded white lawyer. After learning of Mandelas desire to become an attorney, Sidelsky, who ran a large law firm serving both blacks and whites, offered to let Mandela work for him as a law clerk. Mandela gratefully accepted and took on the job at the age of 23, even as he worked to finish his BA via correspondence course. Mandela rented a room in one of the local black townships. He studied by candlelight each night and often walked the six miles to work and back because he lacked bus fare. Sidelsky supplied him with an old suit, which Mandela patched up and wore nearly every day for five years. Committed to the Cause In 1942, Mandela finally completed his BA and enrolled at the University of Witwatersrand as a part-time law student. At Wits, he met several people who would work with him in the years to come for the cause of liberation. In 1943, Mandela joined the African National Congress (ANC),  an organization that worked to improve conditions for blacks in South Africa. That same year, Mandela marched in a successful bus boycott staged by thousands of residents of Johannesburg in protest of high bus fares. As he grew more infuriated by racial inequalities, Mandela deepened his commitment to the struggle for liberation. He helped to form the Youth League, which sought to recruit younger members and transform the ANC into a more militant organization, one that would fight for equal rights. Under laws of the time, Africans were forbidden from owning land or houses in the towns, their wages were five times lower than those of whites, and none could vote. In 1944, Mandela, 26, married nurse Evelyn Mase, 22, and they moved into a small rental home. The couple had a son, Madiba (Thembi), in February 1945, and a daughter, Makaziwe, in 1947. Their daughter died of meningitis as an infant. They welcomed another son, Makgatho, in 1950, and a second daughter, named Makaziwe after her late sister, in 1954. Following the general elections of 1948 in which the white National Party claimed victory, the partys first official act was to establish apartheid. With this act, the long-held, haphazard system of segregation in South Africa became a formal, institutionalized policy, supported by laws and regulations. The new policy would even determine, by race, which parts of town each group could live in. Blacks and whites were to be separated from each other in all aspects of life, including public transportation, in theaters and restaurants, and even on beaches. The Defiance Campaign Mandela completed his law studies in 1952 and, with partner Oliver Tambo, opened the first black law practice in Johannesburg. The practice was busy from the start. Clients included Africans who suffered the injustices of racism, such as seizure of property by whites and beatings by the police. Despite facing hostility from white judges and lawyers, Mandela was a successful attorney. He had a dramatic, impassioned style in the courtroom. During the 1950s, Mandela became more actively involved with the protest movement. He was elected president of the ANC Youth League in 1950. In June 1952, the ANC, along with Indians and colored (biracial) people- two other groups also targeted by discriminatory laws- began a period of nonviolent protest known as the Defiance Campaign. Mandela spearheaded the campaign by recruiting, training, and organizing volunteers. The campaign lasted six months, with cities and towns throughout South Africa participating. Volunteers defied the laws by entering areas meant for whites only. Several thousand were arrested in that six-month time, including Mandela and other ANC leaders. He and the other members of the group were found guilty of statutory communism and sentenced to nine months of hard labor, but the sentence was suspended. The publicity garnered during the Defiance Campaign helped membership in the ANC soar to 100,000. Arrested for Treason The government twice banned Mandela, meaning that he could not attend public meetings, or even family gatherings, because of his involvement in the ANC. His 1953 banning lasted two years. Mandela, along with others on the executive committee of the ANC, drew up the Freedom Charter in June 1955 and presented it during a special meeting called the Congress of the People. The charter called for equal rights for all, regardless of race, and the ability of all citizens to vote, own land, and hold decent-paying jobs. In essence, the charter called for a non-racial South Africa. Months after the charter was presented, police raided the homes of hundreds of members of the ANC and arrested them. Mandela and 155 others were charged with high treason. They were released to await a trial date. Mandelas marriage to Evelyn suffered from the strain of his long absences; they divorced in 1957 after 13 years of marriage. Through work, Mandela met Winnie Madikizela, a social worker who had sought his legal advice. They married in June 1958, just months before Mandelas trial began in August. Mandela was 39 years old, Winnie only 21. The trial would last three years; during that time, Winnie gave birth to two daughters, Zenani and Zindziswa. Sharpeville Massacre The trial, whose venue was changed to Pretoria, moved at a snails pace. The preliminary arraignment alone took a year; the actual trial didnt start until August 1959. Charges were dropped against all but 30 of the accused. Then, on March 21, 1960, the trial was interrupted by a national crisis. In early March, another anti-apartheid group, the Pan African Congress (PAC) had held large demonstrations protesting strict pass laws, which required Africans to carry identification papers with them at all times in order to be able to travel throughout the country. During one such protest in Sharpeville, police had opened fire on unarmed protestors, killing 69, and wounding more than 400. The shocking incident, which was universally condemned, was called the Sharpeville Massacre. Mandela and other ANC leaders called for a national day of mourning, along with a stay at home strike. Hundreds of thousands participated in a mostly peaceful demonstration, but some rioting erupted. The South African government declared a national state of emergency and martial law was enacted. Mandela and his co-defendants were moved into prison cells, and both the ANC and PAC were officially banned. The treason trial resumed on April 25, 1960 and lasted until March 29, 1961. To the surprise of many, the court dropped charges against all of the defendants, citing a lack of evidence proving that the defendants had planned to violently overthrow the government. For many, it was cause for celebration, but Nelson Mandela had no time to celebrate. He was about to enter into a new- and dangerous- chapter in his life. The Black Pimpernel Prior to the verdict, the banned ANC had held an illegal meeting and decided that if Mandela was acquitted, he would go underground after the trial. He would operate clandestinely to give speeches and gather support for the liberation movement. A new organization, the National Action Council (NAC), was formed and Mandela named as its leader. In accordance with the ANC plan, Mandela became a fugitive directly after the trial. He went into hiding at the first of several safe houses, most of them located in the Johannesburg area. Mandela stayed on the move, knowing that the police were looking everywhere for him. Venturing out only at night, when he felt safest, Mandela dressed in disguises, such as a chauffeur or a chef. He made unannounced appearances, giving speeches at places that were presumed safe, and also made radio broadcasts. The press took to calling him the Black Pimpernel, after the title character in the novel The Scarlet Pimpernel. In October 1961, Mandela moved to a farm in Rivonia, outside of Johannesburg. He was safe for a time there and could even enjoy visits from Winnie and their daughters. Spear of the Nation In response to the governments increasingly violent treatment of protestors, Mandela developed a new arm of the ANC- a military unit that he named Spear of the Nation, known also as MK. The MK would operate using a strategy of sabotage, targeting military installations, power facilities, and transportation links. Its goal was to damage property of the state, but not to harm individuals. The MKs first attack came in December 1961, when they bombed an electric power station and empty government offices in Johannesburg. Weeks later, another set of bombings were carried out. White South Africans were startled into the realization that they could no longer take their safety for granted. In January 1962, Mandela, who had never in his life been out of South Africa, was smuggled out of the country to attend a Pan-African conference. He hoped to get financial and military support from other African nations, but was not successful. In Ethiopia, Mandela received training in how to fire a gun and how to build small explosives. Captured After 16 months on the run, Mandela was captured on August 5, 1962, when the car he was driving was overtaken by police. He was arrested on charges of leaving the country illegally and inciting a strike. The trial began on October 15, 1962. Refusing counsel, Mandela spoke on his own behalf. He used his time in court to denounce the governments immoral, discriminatory policies. Despite his impassioned speech, he was sentenced to five years in prison. Mandela was 44 years old when he entered Pretoria Local Prison. Imprisoned in Pretoria for six months, Mandela was then taken to Robben Island, a bleak, isolated prison off the coast of Cape Town, in May 1963. After only a few weeks there, Mandela learned he was about to head back to court- this time on charges of sabotage. He would be charged along with several other members of MK, who had been arrested on the farm in Rivonia. During the trial, Mandela admitted his role in the formation of MK. He emphasized his belief that the protestors were only working toward what they deserved- equal political rights. Mandela concluded his statement by saying that he was prepared to die for his cause. Mandela and his seven co-defendants received guilty verdicts on June 11, 1964. They could have been sentenced to death for so serious a charge, but each was given life imprisonment. All of the men (except one white prisoner) were sent to Robben Island. Life at Robben Island At Robben Island, each prisoner had a small cell with a single light that stayed on 24 hours a day. Prisoners slept on the floor upon a thin mat. Meals consisted of cold porridge and an occasional vegetable or piece of meat (although Indian and Asian prisoners received more generous rations than their black counterparts.) As a reminder of their lower status, black prisoners wore short pants all year-round, whereas others were allowed to wear trousers. Inmates spent nearly ten hours a day at hard labor, digging out rocks from a limestone quarry. The hardships of prison life made it difficult to maintain ones dignity, but Mandela resolved not to be defeated by his imprisonment. He became the spokesperson and leader of the group, and was known by his clan name, Madiba. Over the years, Mandela led the prisoners in numerous protests- hunger strikes, food boycotts, and work slowdowns. He also demanded reading and study privileges. In most cases, the protests eventually yielded results. Mandela suffered personal losses during his imprisonment. His mother died in January 1968 and his 25-year-old son Thembi died in a car accident the following year. A heartbroken Mandela was not allowed to attend either funeral. In 1969, Mandela received word that his wife Winnie had been arrested on charges of communist activities. She spent 18 months in solitary confinement and was subjected to torture. The knowledge that Winnie had been imprisoned caused Mandela great distress. Free Mandela Campaign Throughout his imprisonment, Mandela remained the symbol of the anti-apartheid movement, still inspiring his countrymen. Following a Free Mandela campaign in 1980 that attracted global attention, the government capitulated somewhat. In April 1982, Mandela and four other Rivonia prisoners were transferred to Pollsmoor Prison on the mainland. Mandela was 62 years old and had been at Robben Island for 19 years. Conditions were much improved from those at Robben Island. Inmates were allowed to read newspapers, watch TV, and receive visitors. Mandela was given a lot of publicity, as the government wanted to prove to the world that he was being treated well. In an effort to stem the violence and repair the failing economy, Prime Minister P.W. Botha announced on January 31, 1985 that he would release Nelson Mandela if Mandela agreed to renounce violent demonstrations. But Mandela refused any offer that was not unconditional. In December 1988, Mandela was transferred to a private residence at the Victor Verster prison outside Cape Town and later brought in for secret negotiations with the government. Little was accomplished, however, until Botha resigned from his position in August 1989, forced out by his cabinet. His successor, F.W. de Klerk, was ready to negotiate for peace. He was willing to meet with Mandela. Freedom at Last At Mandelas urging, de Klerk released Mandelas fellow political prisoners without condition in October 1989. Mandela and de Klerk had long discussions about the illegal status of the ANC and other opposition groups, but came to no specific agreement. Then, on February 2, 1990, de Klerk made an announcement that stunned Mandela and all of South Africa. De Klerk enacted a number of sweeping reforms, lifting the bans on the ANC, the PAC, and the Communist Party, among others. He lifted the restrictions still in place from the 1986 state of emergency and ordered the release of all nonviolent political prisoners. On February 11, 1990, Nelson Mandela was given an unconditional release from prison. After 27 years in custody, he was a free man at the age of 71. Mandela was welcomed home by thousands of people cheering in the streets. Soon after his return home, Mandela learned that his wife Winnie had fallen in love with another man in his absence. The Mandelas separated in April 1992 and later divorced. Mandela knew that despite the impressive changes that had been made, there was still much work to be done. He returned immediately to working for the ANC, traveling across South Africa to speak with various groups and to serve as a negotiator for further reforms. In 1993, Mandela and de Klerk were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for their joint effort to bring about peace in South Africa. President Mandela On April 27, 1994, South Africa held its first election in which blacks were allowed to vote. The ANC won 63 percent of the votes, a majority in Parliament. Nelson Mandela- only four years after his release from prison- was elected the first black president of South Africa. Nearly three centuries of white domination had ended. Mandela visited many Western nations in an attempt to convince leaders to work with the new government in South Africa. He also made efforts to help bring about peace in several African nations, including Botswana, Uganda, and Libya. Mandela soon earned the admiration and respect of many outside of South Africa. During Mandelas term, he addressed the need for housing, running water, and electricity for all South Africans. The government also returned land to those it had been taken from, and made it legal again for blacks to own land. In 1998, Mandela married Graca Machel on his eightieth birthday. Machel, 52 years old, was the widow of a former president of Mozambique. Nelson Mandela did not seek re-election in 1999. He was replaced by his Deputy President, Thabo Mbeki. Mandela retired to his mothers village of Qunu, Transkei. Mandela became involved in raising funds for HIV/AIDS, an epidemic in Africa. He organized the AIDS benefit 46664 Concert in 2003, so named after his prison ID number. In 2005, Mandelas own son, Makgatho, died of AIDS at the age of 44. In 2009, the United Nations General Assembly designated July 18, Mandelas birthday, as Nelson Mandela International Day. Nelson Mandela died at his Johannesburg home on December 5, 2013 at the age of 95.

Working Remotely The Pros and Cons of Remote Work

Working Remotely The Pros and Cons of Remote Work Working 9 to 5 When I worked in a â€Å"9 to 5† job as a legal services attorney, I used to stop at the gym on my way back from morning court dates. No one really knew at what time I was finished in court, and I always got my work done, staying late if necessary. So I never got in trouble for my liberties. And while I felt a little guilty about pushing the boundaries of my workday, overall I was happier. I could both keep my job and do other things that were important to me. What made me less happy was that I didn’t spend as much time as I wanted with my family, who lived in a different state. With just two or three weeks’ vacation, I did not have much flexibility. I would travel for short weekends, never feeling like I had enough time to spend with the people I loved. The Pleasures of Flex Time and Working Remotely Now that I am a business owner working from home, my flexible hours are a given. I make my own schedule (which includes  9:30am yoga classes). I can travel whenever I want, to anywhere I want, as long as there’s a phone and internet connection. Sure I work every day, but at least I get some changes of scenery. It would be hard for me to adjust now to a job that required me to be in an office for 9 hours a day, 5 days a week. A remote job, however, I could handle. Especially if it came with flex time and â€Å"unlimited vacation,† perks which many companies are starting to offer. I’m not alone in my sentiments. It turns out remote workers are happier and more productive, and feel more valued than non-remote employees. And a Harvard Business Review article cited a survey conducted by Fractl which found that â€Å"after health insurance, employees place the highest value on benefits †¦ such as flexible hours, more paid vacation time, and work-from-home options.  Not surprisingly, parents are the demographic most enthusiastic about flexible hours and work-life balance. They value these perks even more than health insurance when considering potential job offers! Remote Working Trends FlexJobs reports that 3.9 million U.S. employees work from home at least half of the time, more than double the number from 13 years ago. Interestingly, older workers (over 35) are more likely to telecommute than younger ones. Oh yes, I remember that up until age 35, I found it natural to go to an office and stay there all day! I must admit this data on rising remote work surprised me. I had recently heard about big companies like Yahoo, IBM, and Bank of America going in the opposite direction. They have called thousands of remote employees back into the office – resulting in widespread layoffs. The idea was that remote workers were not able to collaborate and participate in company culture to the extent these companies needed. There were also some situations where employees took inappropriate advantage of their right to work from home. Achieving Balance As with anything in life, balance – and communication – are key. Some companies, like Buffer and Basecamp, function well with fully remote teams. They have robust systems in place to ensure collaboration and communication. Other organizations do better having their employees in person, but allowing flexibility when, for instance, an employee’s child has a doctor’s appointment. And some positions at the same company can be better suited to remote work than others. I’m hearing from some clients that they have been working remotely in their current positions, but to advance to higher levels they need to be physically in the office. That makes sense to me. The benefits to employees of working remotely are clear, and so are the down-sides – like weaker relationships with colleagues, and the pull to procrastinate. Different personalities are suited to different levels of freedom. Benefits for Companies For companies, there are cost-saving benefits to leveraging remote workers. People who previously had to fly from across the globe for meetings, now can attend remotely with the same result. Software platforms (Zoom, Dropbox, GoogleDocs, Slack, etc.) make collaboration easy across continents, and new companies are springing up to take advantage of remote working trends. Remote workers’ productivity is also less affected by things like snow days (better for the company, perhaps, but maybe not as great for the worker who wants to go make snow people with the kids). One company, Kolabtree, predicts that by 2020, 50% of the U.S. workforce will be freelancing. I don’t know if that’s true, but I do think companies need to take care of their employees well and do whatever they can to keep workers happy. If given the right flexibility, even I would consider becoming an employee again! Are you considering working remotely and want help tailoring your resume or LinkedIn profile for the position? Contact us. Well be happy to help you focus your career documents for the job you want.

It security Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

It security - Case Study Example It largely depends on IT infrastructural resources and assets for the completion of its transactions and operations. The average users of the system include the IT administrators and the staff, most of which posses above average computer literacy. The staff basically requires a computer running on a UNIX platform networked to the company’s server especially those located at the satellite offices across the country. Security policy is the most crucial element of a company’s security program given that it entails all the rules and procedures that must be adhered in order to ensure information security; the integrity, confidentiality and availability of data 1. It is the policy of DechTech Solutions that information, in all forms, is protected from unauthorized modification, destruction or disclosure in order to ensure the integrity, confidentiality and availability of data to all the employees and the and other users. The Chief Information Officer (CIO) alongside the Information Security Officer (ISO) has the primary responsibility for the policy implementation and assuring compliance. They work closely with owners, user management and custodians in development and implementation of the security policies of DechTech Solutions. Their responsibilities include; the provision of basic support for users and systems, ensuring that DechTech Solutions security procedures, policies and standards are in place and are adhered to, the provision of advice to owners in the identification and classification of computer resources, performing security audits, advising system development owners in the implementation of security controls, providing employee security education and providing regular reports DechTech oversight committee on information security. Information owner, the manager responsible for the creation of information and is usually the primary user1, is responsible for authorizing access and assigning

Value Risk Management Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Value Risk Management - Case Study Example TechWatt shall use it starting by doing our Value Study (this Study) during the Headquarters briefing stage preparations. Assuming the Value Study validates that it is a good idea to follow through and do our HQP, we shall carry out the Risk Management Study after awarding the architect-design contract, but before site set-up. The following advice is among RIBA guidelines. Architects (VRM professionals) and clients need to make and use a Plan of Work. They must work closely to form a good team for a successful project, and to be sure that all project team-mates know the information they must provide and their clearly-defined responsibilities. This VRM Study is our set of working ideas at TechWatt to use for a smart plan, to optimise value and minimise risk, to foresee some possible problems and consider ways to deal with them, and to lose no value to risks; or lose as little value as possible. Our business wants a new headquarters that is valuable to us now and in the future. First, we must consider many things including at least: future growth and financial stability, our company's needs, the location and costs of a new headquarters, and the monetary and non-monetary benefits we expect from moving into a new headquarters. To keep optimum value we must make and follow a Plan of Work with our architect. Our Plan must include and address negative situations or risks that can take away value. This Study leads to the following Plan of Work (in this order): - TechWatt's Strategic Briefing which states requirements for a Headquarters facility - a Project Briefing that has Outline Proposals by the Design Team (based on a review and further development of ideas in the Strategic Briefing) - Detailed Proposals that build on the ideas outlined in the Project Briefing Each step moves nearer to design and site development. The Risk Management part of this VRM Study suggests ways and back-up plans to minimise loss from risk. TechWatt's professional business is making hardware & software products. With no appreciable experience in facility construction, we will rely greatly on our architectural Design Team. Value Management We seek "value" at TechWatt, for the present and the future. We must clearly define what value is. RIBA makes clearly defining value a high priority in projects. It is the project vision so all on the project team work for the same goal. So, as early as possible and from the start, TechWatt must define "value" so the architect-design-construction team can work to achieve value. It becomes the centre of the Pre-Project Briefing, the Plan of Work and is designed into our headquarters. Value is the compass giving direction to all activity. Pre-Project Briefing: Do good appraisals (RIBA Work Stage A) We must carefully consider and appraise options to make Headquarters. We'll brainstorm the definition of value in the Pre-Project Briefing and put those ideas into our Strategic Brief to give to our architect-design team partners. Lacking experience in this area, we shall depend heavily on our design participants for expert advice during the Pre-Project Briefing (PPB). The PPB is a good starting point for all parties. TechWatt's key participants will include top management and other resident experts who should help appraise needs for a new facility and moving into it. We need similar participation by

Procedures For Drill String Design Engineering Essay

Procedures For Drill String Design Engineering Essay This chapter presents general procedures for drill string design. The design aspects of critical importance and factors controlling drill pipe selection are highlighted. The term Drill Stem is used to refer to the combination of tubulars and accessories that serve as a connection between the rig and the drill bit (RGU lecture slides). It consists mainly of Drill Pipe, Drill Collars (DC) and Heavy Weight Drill Pipes (HWDP) and accessories including bit subs, top drive subs, stabilisers, jars, reamers etc. Drill stem is often used interchangeably with the term Drill String which actually refers to the joints of drill pipe in the drill stem. For the purpose of this report, Drill String will be used to refer to the string of drill pipes that together with drill collars and heavy weight drill pipe make up the drill stem see fig 3.1. 3.1 DRILL STEM COMPONENT DESCRIPTION 3.1.1 Drill Pipe The drill pipes are seamless pipes usually made from different steel grades to different diameters, weights and lengths. They are used to transfer rotary torque and drilling fluid from the rig to the bottom hole assembly (drill collars plus accessories) and drill bit. Each drill pipe is referred to as a joint, with each joint consisting of a pipe body and two connections (see fig 3.2). Drill pipe lengths vary, and these different lengths are classified as ranges, the available or more common ranges include: Range 1: 18 22 ft Range 2: 27 30ft Range 3: 38 40ft. Drill Stem. Fig 3.1: Drill Stem with components. (Heriott Watt University lecture Notes: Drilling Engineering) Drill pipes are also manufactured in different sizes and weights which reflects the wall thickness of the drill pipe. Some common sizes and their corresponding weights include 31/2 in. 13.30 lb/ft and 4 1/2in. 16.60 lb/ft. The indicated weight is the nominal weight in air (pipe body weight excluding tool joints) of the drill pipe. A complete listing of API recognised drill pipe sizes, weight and grades are published in the API RP 7G. The drill pipe grade is an indication of the minimum yield strength of the drill pipe which controls the burst, collapse and tensile load capacity of the drill pipe. The common drill pipe grades are presented in the table below Grade Yield Strength, psi Letter Designation Alternate Designation D D-55 55,000 E E-75 75,000 X X-95 95,000 G G-105 105,000 S S-135 135,000 Table 3.1: Drill Pipe Grades. Drill pipes are often used to drill more than one well, therefore in most cases the drill pipe would be in a worn condition resulting in its wall thickness being less than it was when the drill pipe was brand new. In order to identify and differentiate drill pipes, they are grouped into classes. The different classes are an indication of the degree of wear on the wall thickness of the drill pipe. The classes can be summarised as follows according to API standards: New: Never been used, with wall thickness when to 12.5% below nominal. Premium: Uniform wear with minimum wall thickness of 80%. Class 2: Allows drill pipe with a minimum wall thickness of 70%. It is essential that the drill pipe class be identified in drill pipe use or design, since the extent of wear affects the drill pipe properties and strength. When specifying a particular joint of drill pipe, the class, grade, size, weight and range have to be identified, the specification could therefore appear thus: 5 19.5 lb/ft Grade S Range 2 Fig 3.2: Parts of Drill pipe. (Handbook for Petroleum and Natural gas) 3.1.2 Tool Joints Tools joints are screw type connections welded at the ends of each joint of a drillpipe. The tool joints have coarse tapered threads and sealing shoulders designed to withstand the weight of the drill string when it is suspended in the slips. Tool joints are of two kinds; the pin (male section) and the box (female section). Each drill pipe has a pin attached to one end and a box attached at the other end. This makes it possible for the pin of one joint of drill pipe to be stabbed into box of a previous drill pipe. There are several kinds of tool joints widely used: Joint Type Diagram Description Internal Upset (IU) Tool joint is less than the pipe. Tool joint OD is approximately the same as the pipe. Internal Flush (IF) Tool joints ID is approximately the same as the pipe. The OD is upset. Internal / External Upset (IEU) Tool joint is larger than the pipe such that the tool joint ID is less than the drill pipe. The tool joint OD is larger than the drill pipe. Table 3.2 Types of tool joints. (The Robert Gordon University Lecture Notes: Drill String Design) 3.1.3 Drill Collars Drill collars are thick walled tubes made from steel. They are normally the predominant part of the bottom hole assembly (BHA) which provides Weight on Bit (WOB). Due to the large wall thickness of the drill collars, the connection threads could be machined directly to the body of the tube, thereby eliminating the need for tool joints (see fig 3.3). Drill collars are manufactured in different sizes and shapes including round, square, triangular and spiral grooved. The slick and spiral grooved drill collars are the most common shapes used currently in the industry. There are drill collars made from non-magnetic steel used to isolate directional survey instruments from magnetic interference arising from other drill stem components. The steel grade used in the manufacture of drill collars can be much lower than those used in drill pipes since they are thick walled. Functions Provide weight on bit Provide stiffness for BHA to maintain directional control and minimise bit stability problems. Provide strength to function in compression and prevent buckling of drill pipes. Fig 3.3: Carbon Steel Drill Pipes. 3.1.4 Heavy Weight Drill Pipe Heavy weight drill pipes (HWDP) are often manufactured by machining down drill collars See fig 3.4. They usually have greater wall thickness than regular drill pipe. HWDP are used to provide a gradual cross over when making transition between drill collars and drill pipes to minimise stress concentration at the base of the drill pipe. These stress concentrations often result from: Difference in stiffness due to the difference in cross-sectional area between the drill collar and drill pipe. Bit bouncing arising from rotation and cutting action of the bit. HWDP can be used in either compressive or tensile service. In vertical wellbores it is used for transition and in highly deviated wells, it used in compression to provide weight on bit. Fig 3.4: Heavy Weight Drill Pipe. (Heriott Watt University lecture Notes: Drilling Engineering) 3.1.5 Accessories Drill Stem accessories include: Stabilisers: these are made of a length of pipe with blades on the external surface. The blades are spiral or straight, fixed or mounted on rubber sleeves to allow the drill string rotate inside. Functions of the stabiliser include: Stabilise the drill collars to reduce buckling and bending Ensure uniform loading of tricone bits to reduce wobbling and increase bit life. To provide necessary wall contact and stiffness behind the bit to induce positive side force to build angle when drilling deviated wells. Reamers: used in the BHA to enlarge the well bore diameter and ream out doglegs, key seats, ledges. Drilling Jars: incorporated in the BHA to deliver a sharp blow and assist in freeing the drill string should it become stuck. 3.2 DRILL STRING DESIGN The drill string design is carried out in order to establish the most efficient combination of drill pipe size, weight, and grades to fulfil the drilling objectives of any particular hole section at the lowest cost within acceptable safety standards. In order to design a drill string to be used in a particular hole section, the following parameters need to be established: Hole section depth Hole section size Expected mud weight Desired safety factors in tension and overpull. Desired safety factor in collapse Length of drill collars required to provide desired WOB including OD, ID and weight per foot. Drill pipe sizes and inspection class The drill string design has to meet the following requirement: The working loads (tension, collapse, burst) on the drill string must not exceed the rated load capacity of each of the drill pipes. The drill collars should be of sufficient length to provide all required WOB to prevent buckling loads on the drill pipe. The drill pipes used have to ensure the availability of sufficient fluid flow rate at the drill bit for hole cleaning and good rate of penetration. 3.2.1 Design Safety Factors Design safety factors are applied to calculated working loads to account for any unexpected service load on the drill string. They are used to represent any features that are not considered in the load calculations e.g. temperature and corrosion, thus ensuring that service loads do not exceed the load capacity of the drill pipe. Design safety factor values are often selected based on experience from operating within a particular area, the extent of uncertainty in the operating conditions e.g. when operating in HPHT conditions, a larger safety factor is applied than when operating in less harsh conditions. Some commonly used design safety values are illustrated in the table below Load Design Safety Factor Value Tension 1.1 1.3 Margin of overpull (MOP) 50,000 100,000. MOP of 400,000 have been used in ultra deep wells Weight on Bit 1.15 or 85% of available Weight on bit to ensure neutral point is 85% of drill collar string length measures from the bottom (API RP 7G) Torsion 1.0 (based on the lesser of the pipe body or tool joint strength) Collapse 1.1 1.15 Burst 1.2 3.2.2 Drill Collar Selection The drill collars are selected with the aim of ensuring that they provide sufficient WOB without buckling or putting the lower section of the drill string in compression. 3.2.2.1 Size selection Lateral movement of the drill bit is controlled by the diameter of the drill collar directly behind it. Therefore the size/diameter of the drill collar closest to the bit will be dependent on the required effective minimum hole diameter and the relationship can be given as When two BHA components of different cross-sectional areas are to be made up, it is essential that the bending resistance ratio (BRR) be evaluated. This is important because BHA components have tensile and compressive forces acting on them when they are bent in the well bore. These forces cause stress at connections and any location where there is a change in cross-sectional area. Therefore it is important to ensure that these stresses are within acceptable ranges. The bending resistance (BR) of a drill string component is dependent on its section modulus which is given as Z = section modulus, in3 I = second moment of area, in4 OD = outside diameter, in ID = inside diameter, in The BRR is used to express any change in BR and can be calculated using BRR should generally be below 5.5 and in severe drilling conditions, below 3.5. 3.2.2.2 Connections When selecting connections to be used with drill collars, it is essential to check that the BRR of the pin and box indicates a balanced connection. The BRR for drill collar connection is calculated as the section modulus of the box divided by the section modulus of the pin. The API RP 7G contains tables that can be used to determine BRR for any box and pin OD. BRRs of 2.5 have given balanced connections (RGU Lecture notes, 2005). 3.2.2.3 Weight on Bit The maximum weight on bit required is normally a function of the bit size and type. The rule of thumb is: Maximum WOB of 2000lbf per inch of bit diameter when using Polycrsyalline Diamond Compact bits (PDC) and mud motors. Maximum WOB of 5000lbf per inch of bit diameter when using tricone bits. Other factors controlling WOB include inclination, hole size and buckling. In vertical wellbores the length of drill collars required to provide a specified weight on bit is given by LDC = Length of Drill Collars, ft WOB = Weight of Bit, lb DFBHA = Safety factor to keep neutral point in drill collars. WDC = Weight per foot of Drill Collars, lb/ft Kb = Buoyancy Factor. The neutral point as described by (Mian, 1991) referring to Lubinksi, is the point that divides the drill stem into two portions, with the section above the neutral point in tension and that below in compression. Therefore in order to ensure that the entire length of drill pipes remain in tension, the neutral point of the drill stem has to be maintained within the drill collars. According to the API RP 7G, the height of the neutral point measured from the bottom of the drill collars will be 85% of the total length of drill collars used, with 85% being the safety factor. In inclined wellbores, the angle of inclination has to be taken into consideration when calculating the maximum WOB that can be applied without buckling the drill pipe. This is because although the WOB is applied at the inclination of the wellbore, this weight acts vertically, thus reducing the available weight at the bit. Therefore to allow for this reduction, the buoyed weight of the BHA would be reduced by the cosine of the well inclination, thus WOB in inclined holes is calculated with the formula All parameters remain as defined in equation 5; ÃŽÂ ¸ is the angle of inclination of the well. As a result of the vertically acting weight of the BHA, the drill string tends to lie on the low side of the hole and is supported to some extent by the wall of the well bore. Therefore the pipes above the neutral point could only buckle if the compressive forces in the drill string exceed a critical amount. This critical buckling force is calculated as follows Fcrit = critical buckling force, lb ODHWDP = outside diameter of HWDP, in. ODtj = maximum outside diameter of pipe, in. IDHWDP = inside diameter of HWDP, in. Kb = buoyancy factor. Dhole = diameter of hole, in. ÃŽËÅ" = hole inclination, degrees. Since HWDP are sometimes used to apply WOB in inclined wells, and drill pipes are sometimes used in compression, the critical buckling force is calculated for both HWDP and drill pipes. 3.2.3 Drill Pipe Selection Factors to be considered for drill pipe selection include: Maximum allowable working loads in tension, collapse, burst, and torsion. Maximum allowable dogleg severity at any depth in order to avoid fatigue damage in the drill pipe. Combined loads on the drill pipe. The loads considered when selecting drill pipes to be used in the drill string is dependent on the well depth, well bore geometry and hole section objectives. In shallower vertical wells, collapse and tension are of more importance than burst or torsion. Burst is normally not considered in most designs since the worst case for a burst load on the drill pipe would occur when pressuring the drillstring with a blocked bit nozzle, even with this condition, the burst resistance of the drill pipe is likely to be exceeded. Torsion is of less importance in vertical well bores because drag forces are at minimal amounts unlike in highly deviated wells. The dogleg severity of the well for both vertical and deviated wells is important because of increased fatigue in the drill pipe when it is rotated in the curved sections of the wellbore. A graphical method is recommended for drill pipe selection, with the loads plotted on a load versus depth graph. This makes it possible for loads at particular points on the drill string to be easily visualised, and any sections of the drill pipe that do not meet the load requirements are easily identified and redesigned. 3.2.3.1 Collapse Drill pipes are sometimes exposed to external pressures which exceed its internal pressures, thereby inducing a collapse load on the drill pipe. The worst scenario for collapse in a drill pipe is during drill stem tests when they are run completely empty into the wellbore. The collapse loads are highest at the bottom joint of the drill pipes, as a result, the collapse load would normally control the drill pipe grade to be used at the bottom of the drill string. The API specified collapse resistance for different sizes and grades of drill pipe assuming either elastic, plastic or transition collapse depending on their diameter to wall thickness ratio have been calculated and are published in the API RP 7G with the relevant formulae. The maximum collapse pressure on the drill pipe when it is completely empty can be calculated as follows: Pc = collapse pressure, psi MW = mud weight, ppg TVD = true vertical depth at which Pc acts, ft. On some occasions, the mud weight outside the pipe varies from that inside the pipe, also the fluid levels inside and outside the pipe may also vary. This situation could also induce collapse loads. The collapse loads induced by this scenario can be calculated thus L = Fluid depth outside the drill pipe, ft MW = Mud weight outside the drill pipe, ppg Y = fluid depth inside drill pipe, ft MW = Mud weight inside drill pipe, ppg. The value for Pc is then plotted on the collapse load graph as the collapse load line see fig 3.5. It is recommended practice to apply a design safety factor to the collapse load calculated from equations 8 or 9 (depending on expected scenarios) in order to account for unexpected additional loads as wells as unknown variables. The value of the design factor is often between 1.1 1.5 for class 2 drill pipes. According to (Adams, 1985) the design factor should be 1.3 to account for the fact that new drill pipes are often not used for drill stem tests. The value of the collapse load multiplied by the collapse design factor is plotted on the collapse load graph as the design line, this is then used to select an appropriate grade and weight of drill pipe to fulfil these load conditions. Fig 3.5: Sample Collapse load graph. 3.2.3.2 Tension Load The tensile load capacity of the drill string should be evaluated to ensure there is enough tensile strength in the topmost joint of each size, weight, grade and class of to support the weight of the drill string submerged in the wellbore, hence the need to include buoyancy in the calculations. There has to also be enough reserve tensile strength to pull the drill string out of the well if the pipe gets stuck. The stabiliser and bit weight can be neglected when calculating the drillstring weight. In a vertical wellbore, the forces acting on the drill string are tension from its self weight and the hydrostatic pressure from the fluid in the wellbore. The hydrostatic pressure in the wellbore exerts an upward force on the cross sectional area of the drill string, which is commonly referred to as buoyancy. Therefore the resulting tensile load on the drill string attached to drill collars, taking account of buoyancy is calculated as: FTEN = resultant tensile load on drill string, lb LDP = length of drill pipe, ft LDC = length of drill collars, ft WTDP = air weight of drill pipe, lb/ft WTDC = air weight of drill collars, lb/ft MW = Mud weight, ppg. ADC = Cross sectional area of drill collars, in2 FTEN is plotted on the tension load graph as the tensile load line. The tensile strength values for different sizes, grades and inspection classes of drill pipes are contained in the API RP 7G, and can be calculated from the equation: Fyield = minimum tensile strength, lb Ym = specified minimum yield stress, psi A = cross section area, in2 Fyield is plotted as the minimum tensile strength line on the tension load graph. However, these values (Fyield) are theoretical values based on minimum areas, wall thickness and yield strength of the drill pipes. Therefore, these values only give an indication of the stress at which a certain total deformation would occur and not the specific point at which permanent deformation of the material begins. If a pipe is loaded to the minimum tensile strength calculated from equation 11, there is the possibility that some permanent stretch may occur, thereby making it difficult to keep the pipe straight in the wellbore. In order to eliminate the possibility of this occurrence, 90% of the minimum tensile strength as recommended by the API (American Petroleum Institute), should be used as the maximum allowable tensile load on the drill pipe, i.e Fdesign = maximum allowable tensile load 0.9 = a constant relating proportional limit to yield strength. Fdesign is plotted on the tension load graph as the maximum allowable tensile load line. As with the collapse load, a design factor would be applied to the tensile loads to account for dynamic loads in the drill pipe which occur when the slips are set, as well as prevent the occurrence of pipe parting close to the surface. The product of FTEN and the design factor is plotted as the tension design load line in the tension load graph see fig 3.6. Margin Of Overpull A margin for overpull is added to the tension load to ensure there is sufficient tensile strength in the drill pipe when it is pulled in the event of a stuck pipe. This margin is normally 50,000 100,000lb, but in deeper wells margins of overpull have reached 300,000lb. The value obtained after adding the margin of overpull is also plotted on the tension load graph see fig 3.6. The difference between the calculated tensile load at any point in the drillstring (FTEN) and the maximum allowable tension load would also represent the available overpull. This value represents available tensile strength of the drill pipe to withstand any extra forces applied to the drill string when trying to release it from a stuck pipe situation. FTEN and Fa can also be expressed as a safety factor This safety factor is an indication of how much the selected drill pipe will be able to withstand expected service loads. Due to uncertainty with actual service loads and conditions, a safety factor greater than 1 is always required. Slip Crush Slip crushing is generally not a problem if the slips are properly maintained. However, it is necessary to apply a safety factor for slip crushing when designing the drill string. This helps account for the hoop stress (SH) caused by the slips and the tensile stress (ST) caused by the weight of the drill string suspended in the slips. This relationship between SH and ST can be represented by the following equation SH = hoop stress, psi ST = tensile stress, psi D = outside diameter of the pipe, in. K = lateral load factor on slips, Ls = length of slips, in. = slip taper usually 9 ° 27 45 z = arctan ÃŽÂ ¼ ÃŽÂ ¼ = coefficient of friction, (approximately 0.08) The calculated tensile load is multiplied by the slip crush factor () to obtain the equivalent tensile load from slip crushing: Ts = tension from slip crushing, lb TL = tension load in drill string, lb SH / ST = slip crush factor. Ts is also plotted on the tension load graph as the slip crush design line. Fig 3.6: Sample Tension load graph The general step-by-step procedure for drill pipe selection using the graphical method is given as 1. Calculate the expected collapse load on drill pipe and apply the collapse design safety factor to derive the design load. Use the result to select weight and grade of drill pipe that satisfy collapse conditions. Plot expected collapse load and design load on a pressure vs. depth graph. 2. Calculate maximum allowable tensile load for the drill pipe selected in (1) above. Also calculate tension load on the drill string including buoyancy effects. Plot the tension load, specified minimum yield strength, and maximum allowable tensile load values on axial load vs. depth graph. 3. Apply tension design factor, margin of overpull, and slip crush factor to the calculated tension load and plot the individual results on the axial load vs. depth graph. Of the three factors applied to the tension load, the one resulting in the highest value is selected as the worst case for tensile loads. 4. Inspect graph and re-design any sections not meeting the load requirements. When designing a tapered drill string, the maximum length of a particular size, weight, grade and class of drill pipes that can be used to drill the selected hole section with specified WOB can be calculated as: All parameters remain as defined in equation 10 and 11. Note that equation 16 is only used when the MOP design line is the worst case scenario for tensile loads. When slip crushing is the worst case, the formula below is used SF = safety factor for slip crushing. The lightest available drill pipe grade should be used first in order to ensure that that the heavier grades are used upper section of the drill string where tensile loads are the highest. 3.2.4 Dog Leg Severity Fatigue damage is the most common type of drill pipe failure. It is known to be caused by cyclic bending loads induced in a drill pipe when it is rotated in the curved sections of the wellbore. The rotation of the drill pipe in the curved hole sections induce stresses in the outer wall of the drill pipe by stretching it and increasing its tensile loads. Fatigue damage from doglegs tends to occur when the angle exceeds a critical value. This critical value can be calculated as: C = maximum permissible dog leg severity, deg/100ft E = Youngs modulus, psi (30 x 106 for steel, 10.5 X 106 for aluminium) D = Drill pipe outer diameter, in. L = half the distance between tool joints, (180 in, for range 2 pipe) T = tension below the dogleg, lb à Ã†â€™b = maximum permissible bending stress, psi. I = drill pipe second moment of area, = à Ã†â€™b, is calculated from the buoyant tensile stress (à Ã†â€™t) and is dependent on the grade of the pipe. à Ã†â€™t = T/A, where T is defined in equation 19, and A is the cross sectional area of the pipe body in in2. For grade E pipe, The results from equation 20 are valid for à Ã†â€™t values up to 67,000psi. For grade S pipe, The results from equation 21 are valid for à Ã†â€™t values up to 133,400psi. It is recommended that an allowable dogleg severity (DLS) versus depth chart be plotted for every hole section with a particular drill string design since DLS changes with depth. The chart is plotted with the DLS on the x-axis and depth on the y-axis (see fig 3.7). When DLS lies to the left of the line or below the curve, the drill pipe is in safe operating conditions, and when it falls above or to the right of the curve, it is in unsafe conditions. Fig 3.7: Allowable Dogleg Severity Chart. (Mian, 1991) 3.2.5 Torsion Drill pipe torsional yield strength is important when planning deviated wells and ultra deep wells. In deviated wells, increased drag forces acting on the drill string from its interaction with the wellbore increase torsional loads on the drill pipe. In deeper wells, it is important in stuck pipe situations, in order to know the maximum torque that can be applied to the drill string. The pipe body torsional yield strength when subjected to torque alone can be calculated from the equation: Q = minimum torsional yield strength, ft lb J = polar second moment of area, à Ã¢â€š ¬/32 (D4 d4) D = pipe OD in, d = pipe ID in. Ym = minimum yield strength, psi. 3.2.6 Combined Loads On The Drill String Collapse and Tension The collapse resistance of the drill pipe is often reduced when the drill pipe is exposed to both tension and collapse loads. This happens because tensile loads stretch the drill pipe thereby affecting its D/t (diameter -wall thickness ratio) which controls the collapse resistance of the drill pipe. In ultra deep wells, the effect of combined collapse and tension is experienced when function testing the Blow out Preventers (BOP). It is becoming common practice in ultradeep drilling to equip BOPs with test rams in order to enable the BOP be tested without setting plugs in the well head. This is done to save tripping time due to extreme well depths. An example given by (Chatar, 2010), using 65/8in 27.70lb/ft drill pipe showed that with 65/8in drill pipe having 860kips of maximum allowable tensile loads, at half of this load, the drill string is only capable of withstanding 4,500psi collapse loads, which is often not sufficient for ultradeep drilling BOPs. The corrected collapse resistance of drill pipes under tension can be calculated using the formula Where R represents the percentage of the collapse resistance left when the drill pipe is under tension, therefore in equation 25, the value for R is used to multiply the normal plastic collapse resistance of the pipe to give the collapse resistance under tension. R can also be determined graphically with the following steps 1. Calculate Z using equation 24 2. Enter the ellipse for biaxial stress (fig 3.8) on the horizontal axis with the value for Z and draw a vertical line to the ellipse curve. 3. Draw a horizontal line from the vertical line drawn in (2) above to the vertical axis and read off the value. 4. Use the value from (5) above to multiply the collapse resistance to get the corrected collapse resistance with tension. Fig 3.8: Ellipse of Biaxial yield Strength: Effect of tensile loading om collapse resistance. (RGU Lecture notes: Casing design) Combined tension and torsion The torsional yield strength of a drill pipe is significantly reduced when the pipe is under tension loads. The torsional yield strength of the drill pipe under tension can be calculated with the equation Q = minimum torsional yield strength under tension, ft lb J = polar second moment of area. D = pipe OD in, d= pipe ID in. Ym = minimum yield strength, psi P = total load in tension, lb A = cross sectional area, in2 3.2.7 Tool Joint Performance The makeup torque to be applied to the tool joints when connecting drill pipes is calculated as follows ID = inside diameter, in. OD = outside diameter, in. Values for X, M, B and Q for standard connections are presented in the table below Type of Connection X

General systems and operations design Essay

The human-system design should be least complicated and easy to operate and maintain. Less complications and operational requirements would mean minimum training requirements and workload for the people and thus, less error potential. Hardware operations and computer procedures should also be standardized so that similar operations would require similar hardware and similar applications would only require similar uses and procedures. Operations should only be standardized and implemented to minimize the number of required tools as well as human errors from improper training and minimum skill. Also, the minimization of maintenance requirements and the standardization of procedures and operations should be done so that any person involved in the exploration would at least have an idea on the operations which is especially necessary in cases of accidents when a company in space becomes incapable of operation (Man-Systems Integration Standards, 2006). Changes in Anthropometry As people travels farther from Earth, there is the loss of gravitational pull. This loss, together with the changes in environment exert great effects both in the anthropometry and biology of humans and thus requires extensive consideration especially in designing workstations. In particular, the human body size and posture, the surface area, the movement and volume as well as the mass considerably change with the absence of gravity (Vogel, 1976; Man-Systems Integration Standards, 2006). The height of a person generally increases for both short and long-term missions (Sinha, 2002; Vogel, 1976). This is caused by spine lengthening which can vary from 0.5 inch to about 3% of the baseline height prior to the mission. The fluid shifts caused by gravity cause changes in the chest, waist and limb-circumferences, usually a decrease (Man-Systems Integration Standards, 2006). Because weight is a function of gravitational force, the weight of a person decreases from 3-4%, most of which because of water, and loss of lean body mass as well as fat. Metabolic changes that happen further throughout the mission also cause further weight loss while the center of the weight becomes the head (Man-Systems Integration Standards, 2006). Pre-operation anthropometry does have an effect on how much increase or decrease will happen with the decrease in gravitational pull. This means that in general, sex and race could also have an effect on the amount of changes that would happen as a result of the decrease in gravity. People from the West are usually taller compared to their Eastern, Asian counterparts. In addition, males are generally taller compared to the females of the same race (â€Å"Man-Systems Integration Standards,† n. d. ). The anthropometric data are usually used in the design of equipment. The equipment to be used must be able to fit to any user regardless of size. This is done by designing a one-size-fits-all principle, to accommodate all possible users. This is especially applicable to the design of chairs and the dimensions of the window. Equipment sizes can also be tailored to fit a specific user so long as he or she would be the only user. Objects that must be reached such as buttons and switches must be adjusted based on the reach of the shortest person. In addition, the fact that the spine lengthens while in space would affect the placement of reachable objects. Because the spine lengthens, there would be an increased or easier overhead reach while the downward reach becomes more difficult because of decreased assistance by gravity (Man-Systems Integration Standards, 2006). The anthropometric data can also be used in the design of clothing. Since height increases generally happen as a result of the increase in spin length while in space, the designers must tailor the space suits to accommodate such changes (Man-Systems Integration Standards, 2006). In addition to gravity, the actual tasks that must be performed in space are considered in the design of equipment. To exemplify, if the task involves great precision, continued operation and the use of two hands, the task should be as close as possible to the operator. For tasks that require the use of special suits, design reach dimensions are generally reduced (Man-Systems Integration Standards, 2006). Changes in Work Capacity and Biology The lack of gravity also forces design changes particularly in objects that require pushing, and pulling. Because there is lack in gravity, human force is basically reduced. Diminished musculoskeletal strength and reduced cardiac capacity are effects of lack of gravity and can affect work performance and capacity (Miller, n. d. ). It follows then that in functions that require force such as pushing and pulling, there should be mechanical assistance in the forms of body restraint systems that could substitute for gravity. These restraint systems must be developed under neutral buoyancy conditions on Earth or in actual conditions of the space. Handhold, waist and foot restraints can be used for holding onto a handgrip to accommodate functional reaches; waist restraint for good body control; and foot restraint if the need is excellent reach performance, stability and control (Man-Systems Integration Standards, 2006). Gravity could also have a significant effect on a person’s biology. Particularly, the reduced gravitational force could induce spatial disorientation and space adaptation syndrome or space sickness (Ercoline, 1994). Such are not considered positive effects because they cause impairment of performance. Spatial disorientation refers to changes in posture, vertigo and illusions of movement that could result to tumbling (Brown, 2000). Critical activities are not advised to humans on mission when they are spatially disoriented. In the first days in space when humans experience space adaptation syndrome, humans tend to limit head motions. The effect is increased task time. What is usually done at this point is having limited activities that require speed (Man-Systems Integration Standards, 2006). As implied earlier, gravity also has effects on the human muscular and circulatory system. The effects of diminished gravity on humans’ exercise capacity as a result of reduced cardiac activity (Davis, 1999; Bungo, 1983) and muscular strength (Patton, 1987) necessitates countermeasures such as diet plans and exercise plans (Man-Systems Integration Standards, 2006). One thing that must be considered by the space industry is the adjustment of the human circadian rhythm and the effects of such adjustments in human performance (Gander, 1989). As it is, the goal of human factors research is to effect easier conditions in the space so that better and more successful performance is expected. Failure to do so would mean a loss in life and loss in significant investments (Man-Systems Integration Standards, 2006). Another thing that humans involved in space missions experience is great acceleration and vibration. Acceleration affects the vision depending on how its force is directed. The usual results are dimming of vision, loss of vision at a certain side, usually the periphery, and diminished, blurred or doubled vision. This restriction in vision could induce motion sickness which could affect performance (Stern, 1990). Vibration also has a degrading effect on the performance. It is usually during the lift-off and landing when vibration is greatest. Unfortunately, there are many times when vision is very important. Because of this, letters on equipment and signs are usually written in large format so as to accommodate any blurring or degrading effect of vibration on the person’s vision (Man-Systems Integration Standards, 2006).